PROSPECTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN REFERENCE TO CYBER TERRORISM: A REVIEW
By Harpreet Kaur* & Aakash Malik**
ABSTRACT
The modern world that we live in is often called a global village. Technology has annihilated time and distance and thus has brought everything at the spur of a click. The world run on information technology where internet is the lifeline for the flow of information, business and governance. This information technology revolution has been endowed with its own possibilities and perils. Cyber-terrorism and Cyber-crimes are the ugly fallouts of the free access to internet with which societies and states are grappling with the world over. Cyber terrorism is an organized criminal activity committed by one person or group of persons or countries to disturb a genuine economic or political transaction. It could involve the planning and execution of attacks on networks, computer systems, and telecommunications infrastructures, as well as the electronic exchange of information and the making of threats. Examples are hacking computer systems, introducing viruses to vulnerable networks, web site defacing, Denial-of-service attacks, or terrorist threats made via electronic communication. If cyber criminals are today's equivalent of the small-time thugs who prey on the gullible and innocent, the cyber terrorists are those organized groups which have their own agenda to destabilize the regimes by wreaking a terror havoc. This they have to do no longer with killing innocent people by bullets and bomb blasts. This they do by targeting those centres of power which ensure a smooth functioning of our world as we know it. The study undertaken in this paper highlights the various aspects and threats of this problem and the possible way outs at the disposal of the governments to curb and annihilate this monster.
Keywords- Cyber Terrorism, Internet, Information Technology, Cyber Attacks etc.
I. MEANING AND DIMENSIONS OF CYBER TERRORISM
Cyber terrorism is a tool in the hands of the deviant to create lawlessness and anarchy in a social, political and economic system by the use of cyber technology. N.V Paranjape writes: “Despite tighter physical and border security, terrorism has been a complex problem faced by the governments and the policy makers The advent of new communication technologies has brought about a significant transformation in the character and methods of terrorism. This transformation has given rise to a distinct form of terrorism known as cyber terrorism.[1]
U.S National Infrastructure Protection Centre, defines cyber terrorism as “A criminal act perpetrated by the use of computer and telecommunication capabilities, resulting in violence, destruction and disruption of services to create fear by causing confusion and uncertainty within a given population, with the goal of influencing a government population to conform to a particular political, social or ideological agenda”.
“Cybercrime is the latest type of crime which affects many people. It refers to criminal activity taking place in computer networks, knowingly or intentionally, access without permission, alters, damage, deletes and destroys the database available on the computer or network. It also includes the access without permission to the database or programme of a computer or network in order to devise or execute any unlawful scheme or wrongfully control or obtain money, property or data. It poses the biggest challenge for police, prosecutors and legislators”.[2]
Cyber Crime and Cyber terrorism Investigator’s Handbook defines the term Cyber terrorism as “The use, making preparations for, or threat of action designed to cause a social order change, to create a climate of fear or intimidation amongst (part of) the general public, or to influence political decision-making by the government or an international governmental organisation; made for the purposes of advancing a political, religious, racial or ideological cause; by affecting the integrity, confidentiality, and/or availability of information, information systems and networks, or by unauthorised actions affecting information and communication technology based control of real-world physical processes; and it involves or causes:
Ø violence to, suffering of, serious injuries to, or the death of (a) persons(s),
Ø serious damage to a property,
Ø serious risk to the health and safety of the public
Ø a serious economic loss,
Ø a serious breach of ecological safety,
Ø a serious breach of the social and political stability and cohesion of a nation”[3]
“The term Cyber terrorism- is composition of cyber terms Cyber and terror. The Cyber terrorism is needed to be understood with term ‘terrorist’. Cyber terrorism was coined by Banny C. Collin of Institute for Security and Intelligence (ISI) in late 1980’s. This concept originates only to resonate with general public, because countdown begun from the year 2000 and the millennium buys associated with the big date switch, which gained wide scale recognitions. The terror attacks on September 11, 2001 further thrust the concept of Cyber terror into public discourse, which threat of giant disruptions to economy, infrastructure and national security and was often discussed in depth by the media. Cyber terrorism is also named as- electronic terrorism, electronic jihad, information warfare or Cyber warfare. The basic objective of Cyber-attack is hacking, generally to satisfy the ego of hackers of creating terror. Sometimes it seems too similar or over lapping with each other like cyber-attack and cyber terrorism”.[4]
Cyber Terrorism has been defined by different critics from their own perspectives and vantage points. Mark Pollitt defines cyber terrorism as “The premeditated, politically motivated attack against information, computer systems, computer programs, and data which result in violence against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents”.
Lourdeau on the other hand defined cyber terrorism as “A criminal act perpetrated by the use of computers and telecommunications capabilities, resulting in violence, destruction and/or disruption of services, where the intended purpose is to create fear by causing confusion and uncertainty within a given population, with the goal of influencing a government or population to conform to a particular political, social or ideological agenda.[5]
“In 2000, the information security expert Professor Dorothy E. Denning defined cyber terrorism as: an attack that results in violence against persons or property, or at least causes enough harm to generate fear. This definition has its focus on the possible impact of cyber terrorism. Why terrorists would perform an act of cyber terrorism and the how are not discussed. After 09/11, she redefined cyber terrorism as: unlawful attacks and threats of attack against computers, networks, and the information stored therein when done to intimidate or coerce a government or its people in furtherance of political or social objectives. This definition stems clearly from an information security point of view. Its focus is on the integrity and availability of information. This definition does not cover physical effects as a result of an affected cyber layer. The definition also fails to make a clear distinction with cyber activism (hacktivism)”.
There were some further forays in the scholastic aspect of the field and in “2002, the US Centre for Strategic and International Studies defined cyber terrorism as: The use of computer network tools to shut down critical national infrastructure (such as energy, transportation, government operations) or to coerce or intimidate a government or civilian population.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defines cyber terrorism as: “A cyber-attack using or exploiting computer or communication networks to cause sufficient destruction or disruption to generate fear or to intimidate a society into an ideological goal”.[6]
As per the definition propagated by the National Infrastructure Protection Centre (NIPC) cyber terrorism is “A criminal act perpetrated by the use of computers and telecommunication capabilities resulting in violence, destruction and/or disruption of services to create fear by causing confusion and uncertainty within a given population, with the goal of influencing a government or population to conform to a political, social or ideological agenda”.
II. METHODS OF ATTACKS
Cyber terrorists employ various methods of attack to target the cyber space of countries, institutions, or establishments, each with its distinct characteristics and objectives. One such method is a physical attack, which involves targeting the computer systems of an establishment or government through tangible means such as bomb attacks, arson, rioting, or even physical assault on the machines themselves. This form of attack can result in severe physical damage to the computer infrastructure.
Another method employed by cyber terrorists is a syntactic cyber-attack, wherein a terror group or outfit utilizes computer virus software to compromise computer systems. These attacks are orchestrated to introduce delays, disrupt normal system operations, or manipulate the system's logic to inflict harm on the targeted computer infrastructure. Syntactic cyber-attacks can have widespread and long-lasting consequences, affecting the stability and functionality of critical systems.
In addition to syntactic attacks, cyber terrorists may resort to semantic attacks. These attacks are designed to exploit the trust that users place in computer systems by manipulating information or disseminating false or misleading data. While the modification of information has historically occurred without the aid of computers, the digital age has provided new opportunities for cyber terrorists to engage in such activities. With the help of computers and networks, they can quickly disseminate incorrect information to a large audience through channels like email, message boards, and websites. This can lead to confusion, panic, and social disruption, making semantic attacks a potent tool in the arsenal of cyber terrorists.
In summary, cyber terrorists employ a range of methods, including physical attacks, syntactic cyber-attacks, and semantic attacks, to target computer systems and networks for various purposes, including causing damage, disruption, and the dissemination of misleading information. These tactics underscore the need for robust cybersecurity measures and strategies to safeguard critical infrastructure and maintain trust in digital systems.[7]
III. TOOLS OF CYBER TERRORISM
Cyber terrorism has its specific tools which utilize specific apparatus and systems to create terror among people and institutions. This tool is known as hacking which can have the following categories:
1. Trojans: The word has been taken from the Trojan Horse that the Greeks left behind during the war of Troy with Greek soldiers hidden inside. “In this context, a Trojan horse could be defined as an application that appears to be benign, but instead performs some type of malicious activity. A Trojan can be disguised as a game, an e-mail attachment, or even a Web page.[8]
2. Computer Viruses - It is a computer process, which contaminates another computer, process by improving these. They increase exceptionally swiftly.
3. Computer Worms – “In the context of computers, the term "worm" refers to an effective process or a set of processes that can independently replicate itself or its components to other computer systems, typically through network connections.”[9]
4. Phishing: Phishing is a technique where the scamster presents the user with a bait in the form of an e-mail. There is a link given in the e-mail and the moment the user clicks that link some software is installed in the computer system.
5. Denial of Service - These assaults are targeted usually at the instant messenger users. The user is bombarded with a large number of messages. The computer at the user end may hang or malfunction. It ends in denial of service to the user.
6. Cryptology – “Terrorists have established utilizing ascription, elevated occurrence encrypted voice/data connections etc. It would be a substantial task to decrypt the data terrorist is transferring by utilizing 512-bit systematic encryption”.[10]
IV. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CYBER TERRORISM AND ITS IMPACT
Cyber terrorism presents a multifaceted threat, primarily driven by various factors that have amplified its reach and impact in the digital age. The proliferation of technology and resources on the internet has lowered the barriers for individuals and groups to engage in cyberattacks. Even basic hacking skills can suffice to cause significant damage, making the cyber realm accessible to malicious actors. Moreover, the anonymity offered by the online environment poses a substantial challenge for attribution, emboldening terrorists to operate with reduced fear of being identified. This digital cloak allows them to target victims and infrastructure globally, exploiting vulnerabilities in systems located in different countries without physical presence.
Terrorist groups are increasingly turning to cyberterrorism due to diverse motivations, including ideological, political, or financial gains. The potential for causing disruption, fear, and damage online has become a powerful tool for achieving their objectives. Additionally, the blurring of lines between state and non-state actors in the cyber realm, often involving state-sponsored terrorism, further complicates the landscape.
The impacts of cyber terrorism are profound and far-reaching. Economically, cyberattacks can disrupt critical infrastructure, businesses, and financial systems, resulting in significant losses, industry crippling, stock market fluctuations, and damage to economic stability. In cases targeting essential services like healthcare or transportation, there is a risk of loss of life, as disruptions in medical facilities' systems can hinder patient care, and attacks on transportation systems can lead to accidents. The threat extends to national security, as attacks on government systems, military infrastructure, or the power grid can compromise a nation's ability to defend itself and maintain law and order. Furthermore, the psychological impact of cyberattacks cannot be underestimated, as they can spread fear and erode public trust in institutions, undermining social cohesion. Prolonged and widespread cyberattacks can even lead to social unrest, particularly if they disrupt access to essential services such as food, water, or healthcare, with potential political and societal ramifications. In response, governments and organizations may implement stricter cybersecurity measures, potentially leading to increased surveillance and privacy concerns for citizens. As critical infrastructures continue to rely on computer networks for their operations, the devastating effects of cyber terrorism underscore the urgency of comprehensive cybersecurity strategies and international cooperation to mitigate this evolving threat.
V. ROLE OF ORGANISATION AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
Since the internet has joined whole of the world, no country is or can stay isolated from the other. Cyber security is not a lonely desire of the countries but a collective responsibility. It is a tragedy that a majority of the countries despite living in a transparent world of internet try to be secretive and have doubts at other countries. This doubt is not misplaced as the governments still indulge in espionage against other countries and have their own elaborate foreign investigative and spying networks. But a time has come when the countries must cooperate with others in this fast-changing world. “There are reasons behind this lack of cooperation. First of all, it is new to some states, secondly, some states may not know what is needed, and finally, it touches on many sensitive issues ranging from economic competition, privacy, and access, to national security.
With advances in technology, financial and banking systems, telecommunication networks, aviation systems, and air traffic control become more reliant on computer and telecommunication networks, which serve many countries but are not controlled by a single country. Therefore, it may be reasonable to claim that it may be easier to facilitate international cooperation in critical infrastructure protection by starting with areas where the transnational connections are very large, such as financial services”.[11] There are multilateral level international corporations that keep on working on various issues with which the world is beset.
Some of these are as follows:
1. United Nations (UN)
“Cybersecurity holds a significant place in the ongoing discussions about security policies within the UN system, and it is consistently acknowledged as a central element that will continually evolve on the international security agenda. Within the UN system, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) plays a key role in addressing practical aspects and applications related to international cybersecurity. The ITU has a clear mission statement that directly addresses the issue of cybersecurity, aiming to instill confidence in the use of the digital space by enhancing online security. The attainment of cybersecurity and the promotion of cyber peace rank among the most critical concerns in the field of information and communication technology (ICT) development, and the ITU takes concrete steps through its Global Cybersecurity Agenda (GCA). In September 2008, the ITU and the International Multilateral Partnership Against Cyber Threats (IMPACT) signed an agreement that established the GCA within the IMPACT headquarters in Cyberjaya, Malaysia.[12]
2. The Group of 8
The Group of Eight (G-8) countries comprise of the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Canada, Italy, and Russia. Since 1975, their leaders have convened annually to discuss various important issues, such as crime, terrorism, and the development of the information highway. In 1997, the G-8 established the Subgroup on High-Tech Crime to address emerging challenges. Additionally, in January 1997, the G-8 initiated a "24-Hour-Contact-Group" to facilitate swift communication among law enforcement agencies during investigations. This network allowed members to maintain digital evidence until legal processes could be initiated, with the ultimate goal of creating global agreements to prevent the existence of digital safe havens for illegal activities. Furthermore, the G-8 organized meetings between law enforcement and industry representatives to encourage cooperation. These gatherings aimed not only to foster collaboration among law enforcement agencies but also between industries, allowing both parties to share concerns, experiences, and future visions. These efforts have had various impacts, serving as a model for broader multilateral initiatives and highlighting challenges that individual states and multilateral organizations may encounter. The G-8's endeavours underscore the significance of international cooperation, potentially acting as a deterrent to criminals by ensuring swift and certain investigations and prosecutions.
3. Council of Europe (CoE)
The Council of Europe (CoE) plays a significant role in shaping international cybersecurity policies primarily through its Convention on Cyber Crime, which was made available for signing in November 2001 and came into effect in July 2004. The CoE Convention on Cybercrime holds importance on multiple fronts. Firstly, the Convention deals with a wide range of illegal activities and practices that span various aspects of cybersecurity threats. Secondly, it establishes standardized norms and procedures that are legally binding on the countries that have signed it. Thirdly, the Convention is not restricted to CoE member states alone; it is open to other nations as well, which enhances its standing as an international instrument. Lastly, the Convention has introduced specific requirements concerning data handling and access, which have raised concerns regarding privacy laws and civil liberties.[13]
4. Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
APEC was established in 1989 as a response to the growing interdependence among economies in the Asia Pacific region. Over the years, it has become the primary platform for promoting open trade and practical economic cooperation. One of the initiatives within APEC is the Telecommunication and Information Working Group (APEC-TEL), which serves as a coordinating body involving governments, private sectors, and businesses from the 21 APEC member nations. In May 2002, during the Fifth APEC Ministerial Meeting on Telecommunications and Information Industry held in China, APEC members recognized the importance of promoting advanced, secure, and reliable information infrastructures. They expressed their commitment to enhancing multilateral and bilateral cooperation within the APEC region to develop telecommunications regulatory policies, as well as information and network security (APEC Shanghai Declaration, 2002). Furthermore, they emphasized the significance of establishing a legal framework to address the unlawful misuse of information technologies and to facilitate law enforcement cooperation in countering such misuse.
5. Interpol
Interpol addresses various types of crimes, including those related to the misuse of information technologies, commonly known as information technology crimes. To tackle this issue, Interpol has established specialized teams or "working parties" composed of experts from national computer crime units within its member countries. Instead of creating a new division, Interpol opted to collaborate with these working parties. At present, there are five major working parties that Interpol collaborates with to combat information technology crimes: a) European Working Party on Technology Crime, b) American Regional Working Party on Information Technology Crime, c) African Regional Working Party on Information Technology Crime, d) Asia South Pacific Regional Working Party on Information Technology Crime, e) Steering Committee for Information Technology Crime. Among these groups, the European Working Party on Technology Crime, founded in 1990, has made notable accomplishments. Some of these achievements include the development of the Computer Crime Manual, now referred to as the Information Technology Crime Investigation Manual (ITCIM), which serves as a best practice guide for experienced investigators. They have also conducted numerous training courses to share their expertise with other Interpol members, established a rapid information exchange system, and created training materials such as videos and CD-ROMs for international law enforcement agencies[14]
6. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
In 2002, the OECD's Directorate for Science, Technology, and Industry introduced the "Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks," which have since become a widely recognized standard for both national and international cybersecurity efforts. These guidelines, while not legally binding, were embraced by 19 out of the 30 OECD member countries, in addition to Brazil and the European Union. The Guidelines are designed to be applicable to all participants in the evolving information society and emphasize the importance of raising awareness and understanding of security issues. They also advocate for the development of a "security culture" among individuals and organizations. These guidelines are built upon nine interrelated principles that serve as a framework for promoting a culture of safety. Other cybersecurity initiatives undertaken by the OECD include a series of reports on information security and privacy. These reports cover various topics, including national guidelines for information security, OECD policies for radio frequency identification, and numerous others. Additionally, the OECD's Working Party on Security of Information and Privacy (WPSIP) plays a key role in advancing cybersecurity and privacy efforts.[15]
VI. INDIAN SCENARIO
India is a country with perhaps the largest number of smart phones or phones with internet connections after USA and China. It is a country today at the threshold of 5G technology but still a large population in the country is not familiar with all the nuances of the internet. No doubt the government, during the last many years tried to move the country cashless and attempted to increase the dependence on e-portals, the Indians perhaps are not yet ready for the change. It enhances the vulnerability of the people and might make them sitting ducks for the cyber criminals and terrorists. This makes the cyber terrorism one of the most ignored and underestimated issue considered in India. Most of the Indian citizens are insensitive towards cyber threats of being victimized of virtual world. We generally share our significant and super sensitive data and information unintentionally on social media. The momentous growth of Cyber world has posed the threats of Cyber terrorism.
The Cyber-attack has a tendency of depiction of lethal, non-lethal psychological wellbeing, public confidence and political attitudes. Generally, it is to consider as Cyber terrorism affects only the national security system. But the fact of the matter is that it also affects their psyche and cognition. The Cyber terrorists have expanded the growth of Cyber-attacks, which is dramatically increased in past few years.
Legal Provisions related to Cyber Terrorism
Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act): The IT Act is the primary legislation governing cybercrimes in India. It was amended in 2008 to address emerging cyber threats more effectively. Relevant sections include:
Ø Section 43: Deals with unauthorized access to computer systems.
Ø Section 66: Pertains to computer-related offenses, including hacking.
Ø Section 66A (repealed): Previously, this section was used to address offensive online content, but it was struck down by the Supreme Court in 2015 for being vague and unconstitutional.
Ø Section 66F: Specifically addresses cyberterrorism and prescribes stringent punishment for individuals involved in cyberterrorism activities, including terrorist acts done using computer resources.[16]
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967: The UAPA is used to combat unlawful activities, including terrorism. It has been amended to include provisions related to the use of cyberspace for terrorist activities.
National Cyber Security Policy: India has a National Cyber Security Policy that outlines strategies and objectives for strengthening cybersecurity in the country. It emphasizes the importance of protecting critical information infrastructure and responding to cyber threats.
Indian Penal Code (IPC): Certain sections of the IPC, such as those related to criminal conspiracy, forgery, and fraud, can be applied to cybercrimes, including cyberterrorism, when applicable.[17]
Network and Information Security (NIS) Directive: India introduced a draft NIS Directive to enhance the security of critical infrastructure and essential services by requiring organizations to implement cybersecurity measures and report security incidents.
Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In): CERT-In is the national agency responsible for responding to cybersecurity incidents. It plays a crucial role in coordinating with law enforcement agencies to address cybercrimes and cyberterrorism.
Flaws in Indian system and challenges faced by the Administration
India has progressively been moving from customary to e-administration, which can be seen from the way that areas like annual assessment, visa, and identifications have been changed into electronic structure. This demonstrates that India has begun to depend vigorously on innovation. Different occasions where we can see the dependence on innovation are banking and monetary establishments, travel areas, online business, and securities exchanges. Because of this, these areas are viewed as worthwhile focuses to make devastation in the country. The harm done can be calamitous and irreversible. There is a wide scope of assaults and weaknesses which can be considered as a wrongdoing against the Nation.
With a shift to e governance in almost all the facets of governance in the country, the challenges before the authorities too have multiplied manifold. The country right now in the midst of a major paradigm shift vis-à-vis the new way of governance and it has thrown up its own possibilities and perils. The objective of e-governance is to simplify and enhance the interaction between citizens and government agencies (Government to Public or G to P). This is achieved by facilitating the exchange of information with a focus on transparency and trustworthiness. In a democracy, people govern themselves and they cannot govern themselves properly unless they are aware of social, political, economic and other issues confronting them. It's evident that the primary objective of cyber terrorist actions is to disrupt a stable communication system, particularly one that includes an e-governance infrastructure. Through a combination of virus attacks and hacking techniques, these terrorists can effectively undermine the government's e-governance system, leading to potentially more severe and catastrophic consequences compared to traditional acts of terrorism that cause physical damage. Additionally, these terrorists can illicitly access information that the government has legitimately protected from public scrutiny for national security reasons, posing a significant threat to the nation as a whole. Consequently, there is an urgent requirement for a robust e-governance foundation equipped with state-of-the-art security measures and systems to address this pressing issue.[18]
VIII. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS TO COUNTER CYBER TERRORISM
Cyber terrorism poses a significant and evolving threat to nations, organizations, and individuals in our increasingly interconnected world. Its potential for causing economic damage, loss of life, national security breaches, and social unrest is substantial. To counter cyber terrorism effectively, a multifaceted approach is essential.
Firstly, enhancing cybersecurity measures is paramount. Governments, businesses, and individuals must invest in robust cybersecurity infrastructure, regularly update software, and employ advanced threat detection and prevention systems. Cyber hygiene practices, such as strong password management and employee training, should be promoted to mitigate vulnerabilities.
Secondly, international cooperation is crucial. Cyber threats transcend borders, and collaborative efforts among nations are essential to track, apprehend, and prosecute cyber terrorists. Information sharing, joint cybersecurity exercises, and the development of international norms and treaties can strengthen global cybersecurity. Additionally, law enforcement agencies and intelligence communities must adapt to the digital age. They should develop cyber investigation capabilities and work closely with the judiciary to ensure that perpetrators of cyber terrorism are brought to justice. Public awareness and education are also vital components of countering cyber terrorism. Governments, schools, and organizations should educate individuals about cyber threats, safe online practices, and the consequences of cyber terrorism.
Lastly, safeguarding critical infrastructure and systems must be a top priority. This includes securing power grids, transportation networks, healthcare systems, and financial institutions to ensure their resilience against cyberattacks.
In a world increasingly dependent on digital technologies, the battle against cyber terrorism requires vigilance, cooperation, and continuous adaptation to evolving threats. Only through a comprehensive and coordinated effort can we effectively mitigate the risks posed by cyber terrorists and safeguard our digital way of life.
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* Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Laws, Panjab University, Chandigarh,160014. Email id: harpreet.kaurh08@gmail.com.
** Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Laws, Panjab University, Chandigarh,160014. Email id: aakash.malik000@gmail.com.
[1] N. V Paranjape, Criminology & Penology with Victimology (Central Law Publication,2018).
[2] R. K. Chaubey, An Introduction to Cyber Crime and Cyber Law (Kamal Law House, 2009). Allahabad
[3] Babak Akhgar, Andrew Staniforth, and Francesca Bosco, “Cyber-Crime and Cyber Terrorism Investigator's Handbook”, eds. Syngress, (2014).
[4] Shiv Raman and Nidhi Sharma, "Cyber Terrorism in India: A Physical Reality or Virtual Myth". Indian Journal of Law and Human Behaviour Volume 5 133-140(2019).
[5] Ibid.
[6] Harshita Thalwal "Cyber Terrorism in India", Journal of Critical Reviews 7 (15) 2861-2866(2020).
[7] Minakshi Bhardwaj and G. P. Singh. "Types of hacking attack and their countermeasure", Int. J. Educ. Plann. Admin 1, no. 1 43-53(2011).
[8] Ibid.
[9] Harshita Thalwal "Cyber Terrorism in India", Journal of Critical Reviews 7 (15) 2861-2866(2020).
[10] Harshita Thalwal "Cyber Terrorism in India", Journal of Critical Reviews 7 (15) 2861-2866(2020).
[11] S Ozeren,"Cyberterrorism and international cooperation: General overview of the available mechanisms to facilitate an overwhelming task", NATO SECURITY THROUGH SCIENCE SERIES E HUMAN AND SOCIETAL DYNAMICS 34 70(2008).
[12] Mitko Bogdanoski, and Drage Petreski. "Cyber terrorism–global security threat." Contemporary Macedonian Defense-International Scientific Defense, Security and Peace Journal 13 59-73(2013).
[13] Mitko Bogdanoski, and Drage Petreski. "Cyber terrorism–global security threat." Contemporary Macedonian Defense-International Scientific Defense, Security and Peace Journal 13 59-73(2013).
[14] S Ozeren,"Cyberterrorism and international cooperation: General overview of the available mechanisms to facilitate an overwhelming task", NATO SECURITY THROUGH SCIENCE SERIES E HUMAN AND SOCIETAL DYNAMICS 34 70(2008).
[15] Mitko Bogdanoski, and Drage Petreski. "Cyber terrorism–global security threat." Contemporary Macedonian Defense-International Scientific Defense, Security and Peace Journal 13 59-73(2013).
[16] The Information Technology Act, 2000 (Act 21 of 2000)
[17] The Indian Penal Code, 1860 (Act 45 of 1860).
[18]Shrish Kumar Tiwari, "Cyber Crimes: A Threat to Humanity", Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews 2
94-101(2014).